History of International Relations

International relations has a long and rich history, which expands thousands of years into the past. Examining the history of international relations will allow us to not only learn about past events, but it can also help us understand state and leader motivations; the past can be used as data points to help us understand current issues in international relations.

Smallman & Brown (2012) have an excellent quote about international studies history which can easily be applied to international relations history. They say that:

History matters in international studies because it shapes the nations of the world, the languages that people speak, the perspectives that they hold, the religions that they profess, and the institutions that they follow. It is difficult to define a contemporary international issue that can be understood outside of its historical context, whether one considers the contest between India and Pakistan over Kashmir or China’s contested relationship with Taiwan. Likewise, certain aspects of the international system–the tendency of states to form alliances, to decide to go to war, or to trade political interests for economic needs–are enduring” (12).

Others such as Henry Nau have also stressed the importance of history in understanding international relations, as he says that “We are interested in history because it provides a baseline for understanding what is the same and what is different in today’s world” (81). He also goes on to say that “There are always parallels between the past and the present. History never repeats itself exactly, but it often rhymes” (82). Those who espouse current trends in political theories may often use historical examples to make their case (Nau, 2014). Moreover, history has continued to play an integral part of international relations and international relations research; international relations scholars have continued to focus on history for their studies (Hobson & Lawson, 2008).

International Relations History: Before the Common Era

International relations have existed for thousands of years. Well before the “common era,” a number of dominant empires existed thought the world. For example, there were empires in Persia such as the Achaemenid Empire. In and near the Mediterranean, the rise of Greek and Roman empires controlled much of the area in Southeast Europe. Many of these Empires were imperialist, directly controlling the lands of areas, politics, and economics of the lands that they conquered.

International Relations History: After the Common Era

As Mingst & explain, following the fall of the Roman Empire, we began to see a number of empires emerging throughout the world. In the Middle East, we saw the presence of the Sassanian Empire in modern day Iran. However, in the early 7th century, Islam was born in Arabia. Shortly following the death of the Prophet Mohammed, Islamic caliphates spread the faith throughout much of the Middle East, and into Northern Africa and Spain, as well as parts of Europe that included as far west as the Balkans.

While much of the spread was due to military conquests, it is important to note that conversions were not primarily as a result of violent threats. In fact, in the Islamic empires at the time, there were preferences by leaders that those under their empires not convert to Islam, as that would then remove them from the list of those who had to pay taxes to the empire.

In the history of international relations, some of the same themes discussed today were quite real then as well. For example, military power mattered, but so did diplomatic relations with others. Furthermore, there were many empires looking to gain political and military power.

Following the Islamic empires, a host of other groups were vying for political control. Whether it was European entities, African powers, the Mongols, or others, international relations was centered on ideas such as influence, military, politics, and economics between one another.

The History of International Relations From the 14th-17th Centuries

Scholars discussing the history of international relations often point to the time period between the 1300s and the 1600s as one which had one of the most powerful empires (the Ottoman Empire) begin, but at the same time, it was the precious of what what come to be one of more extensive technological advancements and power in Europe within two a few hundred years However, at the time, the international relations power clearly went to the Ottoman Empire. This was a group that started off as Gazis or holy fighters in Anatolia in the 1200s. Within the next couple of hundred years, the Ottoman Empire spread its power and influence throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and a great part of southeastern Europe.

Meanwhile, European powers did not seem (at the time) to have the ability to rival the Ottomans. As Smallman & Brown (2015) write, “If a dispassionate observer had studied the globe in the fourteenth century, it would have been unlikely that he or she would have chosen Europe as the region that would dominate international affairs for the next five centuries. Nothing predestined Europe’s rise (14). They more specifically point out that between a lack of technological advancements, disease (such as the Black Plague) within the continent, internal religious and political conflicts (such as the Hundred Years War), as well the strength of the Ottoman Empire made it difficult to see Europe rival the Islamic empire in strength. In fact, the Otttoman Empire took Constantinople in 1453 (re-naming it Istanbul), and in the years later, continued their expansion into Europe (even attempting to take Vienna (albeit unsuccessfully, in 1529 (and then later in 1689))).

And yet, looking at the history of international affairs at that time, shortly after the height of the Ottoman Empire in the 1400s and 1500s, European power began to become international relations threats to the empire. Part of Europe’s power was a result of declining influence and expansion by Chinese and Japanese empires in East Asia. A costly “Great Fleet” expedition altered China’s foreign policies, and thus, there was less action outwards at this time. Thus, because of a reduced trade, as well as an interest in sailing voyages had many European powers looking to expand their respective navies. Thus, Spanish (and other) powers began their explorations, and rose in military strength during this time.

With regards to the history of international relations during this time period, as Smallman & Brown (2015) write: “while the new unity and naval knowledge of Iberia prompted European expansionism, an equally important force was a revolution in military affairs that made European armies vastly more powerful than their counterparts[,]” and this was the use of gunpower. While European and Islamic powers both had access to gunpowder, Europe began producing (and relying on) cannons to challenge the Ottoman forces. Furthermore, Europe continued to increase their strength in other forms of military technology, and as a result, started to hand the Ottomans military defeats, not to mention negotiated capitulation agreements that allowed European citizens greater power and autonomy within the Ottoman Empire itself.

The Ottoman Empire, not only dealing with defeats to Europe, but they were also going through internal changes. With a weakening of the military, nepotism for higher positions, as well as a weakening economy, the shifts of powers continued towards Europe. However, we should not dismiss the Ottoman Empire during this time of international relations history: they were able to continue existing as an empire until the end of World War I.

However, again, the military power was Europe. Not only were European entities stopping the Ottomans eastward, but this was also the time that Europe looked toward expansionist foreign policies, particularly in Canada, the Americas, South America, and Africa. For example, in the early 1500s (1519 and 1521), the Spanish powers, under Hernan Cortes, defeated the Aztec Empire. Then, within ten years, Francisco Pizarro beat the Incan Empire, ushering in further European imperialism in the Americas.

While the Incan Empire was one of the most powerful and expansive empires in the world, they were unable to successfully fight off the Europeans. As scholars explain, while these empires were very knowledgable, had intricate cities and technologies, they were harmed greatly by diseases (such as smallpox), or the European technologies which included the use of horses, steel, and gunpowder (Smallman & Brown, 2015). In their occupation of these lands, the Spanish leaders took valuable resources such as silver (in the 1540s) (Smallman & Brown, 2015), which helped them sustain their military strength and power, at the expense of the population and land in the Americas.

In the late 1400s, Portuguese sailors colonized parts of Africa. This not only increased their own trade with Asia, but they also reduced the powers of the Islamic empires in the region (Smallman & Brown, 2015).

International Relations History and Colonialism in the 1700s, 1800s

In the 1600s, arguably one of the most noted moments of international relations history is the Peace of Westphalia, and the implications that this had and continues to have on the modern day international system. As a peace to the Hundred Years War, a number of European states came together to agree to the idea of respect for one another’s borders. The Peace of Westphalia established the importance of the state sovereign system.

At the same time, it is quite difficult to discuss modern-day international relations, as well as the history of international relations with discussing the role that imperialism and colonialism played on political conditions of individuals and states.

One example of the effects of imperialism and colonialism on international relations can be seen with how European political powers carried out racist and dominating practices against those whom they colonized in Africa, the Middle East, other parts of Asia, and South America.

Alice Conklin (1997), in her book A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895-1930 writes about how the French Third Republic Government viewed their relationships with those that they colonized, and how they saw many an “uncivilized” compared to their own French culture. Beginning in 1895, the Third Republic adopted the mission civilisatrice, or the civilizing mission. This was the idea that the French government would continue occupying other peoples and lands, partly for resources and the economic benefit that this would provide France, and partly because of the desire to “civilize” those that they now colonized. This idea was prominent in French circles decades earlier, although the government officially adopted it later. For example, French politician Jules Ferry, who was speaking to the French Parliament in the 1880s, was quoted as saying that:

“We must believe that if Providence deigned to confer upon us a mission by making us masters of the earth, this mission consists not of attempting an impossible fusion of the races but of simply spreading or awakening among the other races the superior notions of which we are the guardians” (13). It was a couple of years following this speech that Ferry was also quoted as saying that “the superior forces have a right vis-à-vis the inferior races…to civilize them” (13). As Conklin (1997) explains, while some challenged Ferry’s ideas, many others agreed that France did have some sort of special mission to civilize others. And shortly after, many supporters of this idea would attempt to spread propaganda about those they colonized in order to claim that indeed they were “uncivilized” and that the French had a responsibility to bring this “civilization” to them.

One other quote that illustrates this thinking was by Gabriel Charmes, a journalist at the time, who was quoted as saying:

“If France were able to establish itself permanently in North Africa…, if in these immense regions where only fanaticism and brigandage reign today, it were to bring—even at the price of spilled blood—peace, commerce, tolerance, who could say this was a poor use of force?…Having taught millions of men civilization and freedom would fill it with the pride that makes great peoples” (Conklin, 1997: 13).

While prevalent in France, such ideas were not limited to the French; many European colonizers saw their actions as a “white man’s burden” to “civilize” non-whites. It was in the 1700s 1800s that many of these European powers began trying to colonize as much of Africa and the Middle East as was possible.

Also, these European leaders would often try to destabilize local conditions for their own political benefit. For example, “The advance of British rule in India was initially aided by the collapse of the Mogul imperial system into numerous warring states, just as the Dutch managed to spread their influence gradually throughout the East Indes (Viotti & Kauppi, 2013: 79). However, it was in 1884 that many European States came together to discuss further ways to colonize Africa. As Peter J. Schraeder (2004) explains in his book African Politics and Society: A Mosaic in Transformation,

In October 1884, the European colonial powers were invited to a conference in Berlin by German Chancellor Otto von Bismark. The United States also attended as an observer nation, and its representative, John A. Kasson, signed the Berlin Convention, which formally ended the Berlin Conference in 1885. The Berlin Conference was designed to dampen escalating imperial conflict in Africa by officially demarcating the boundaries between European possessions. The conference also set in motion efforts to fully occupy those portions of the continent that remained independent, a process that was largely completed by the beginning of World War I. What became known as the scramble for Africa consecrated the creation of formal European empires and spheres of interest throughout Africa. Except for the unique cases of Ethiopia and Liberia, independent Africa ceased to exist, and African politics and society were controlled from the capital cities of seven European powers: Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. Disregarding the wishes of African leaders and their peoples, the European powers and their norther allies had transformed African politics and society” (50).